Tribals want community certificates

30th April, Madurai: Members of various Scheduled Tribe communities staged a protest demanding issuance of community certificates. The protest, led by P. Shanmugam, the general secretary of Tamil Nadu Tribals’ Association, claimed that community certificates had not been issued to Scheduled Tribes for many years. Till 1992, certificates were issued and no certificate was issued for the past 16 years.

Mr Shanmugam said that 5000 members of Malai Vedan tribe and 400 members of Kattunayakan tribe had not been issued certificates. Citing that a whole generation of the community members had been denied education and livelihood owing to this since 1992, he called for an enquiry into the issue. They also demanded provision of basic amenities to Paliyar Scheduled Tribes living in Peraiyur taluk.

Allotment of forest land to Tribals

The Union Government has not yet received any proposal regarding allotment of forest land specifically to tribal people. The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 has come into force on 31st December, 2007. The responsibility for recognition and vesting of forest rights over forest land under occupation of the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers rests with the State/U.T. Governments. They are still in the process of implementing the provisions of the Act. So far no information from the State/U.T. Governments has been received regarding the vesting of the rights of tribal and other traditional forest dwellers. Only God knows when the tribals would get all their rights.

Central scheme for ST girls to improve literacy level

In an effort to raise the literacy level among tribal girls, the Government has decided to launch a Central scheme for strengthening education among Scheduled Tribe(ST) girls from April 2008.

A meeting of the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA), chaired by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, approved for a revised 100 per cent central gender specific scheme for ST girls in low literacy districts from 2007-08.

An amount of Rs 298.79 crore has been earmarked for the scheme during the Eleventh Plan period. The scheme would be implemented in 54 identified districts where the ST population is 25 per cent or more, and ST female literacy rate below 35 per cent as per 2001 census.

Any other tribal block in a district, other than the identified, where ST population is more as stipulated, would also be covered. In addition, the scheme would also cover areas below a block level (gram panchayats) inhabited by the notified Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs).

The scheme will bridge the gap in literacy levels between the general female population and tribal women, through facilitating 100 per cent enrolment of tribal girls in the identified districts or blocks, more particularly in naxal affected areas and areas inhabited by PTGs.

The scheme would also help in reducing the dropouts at the elementary level by creating the required infrastructure and ambience for education with good health.

Among other things, the revised scheme would provide assistance at the rate of Rs 26,000 per student per annum recurring and annual rent of building, improved rates for free meals, books and uniforms, stipend for tuition, proper health care and medical contingency and sports development.

Now that's indeed a good news.

University Grants Commission (UGC)

University Grants Commission provides financial assistance to universities/ deemed universities for the establishment of SC/ST cells in universities to ensure effective implementation of reservation policy for SCs and STs. The UGC has established SC/ST Cells in 113 Universities including central universities to ensure proper implementation of the reservation policy. The standing committee on SCs/STs monitors and reviews the work undertaken by the universities/colleges.

As per the reservation policy, UGC has earmarked 15 percent and 7.50 percent reservation for SCs and STs respectively in appointments, both in teaching and non-teaching posts, admission, hostel accommodation, etc., in universities/colleges, professional and technical educational institutions administered by the central government.

State universities follow reservation policy as prescribed by respective state governments. The Commission has been issuing guidelines/ directives/ instruction from time to time for implementing reservation policy of the government of India. Apart from reservation, thereis also relaxation in minimum qualifying marks for admission for SC/ST candidates.

University grant commission has been implementing the programme of career orientation to education (vocationalisation of education) to ensure that the graduates have knowledge, skills and attitudes for gainful employment in the wage sector in general, and self-employement in particular for all including SCs/STs.

It also provides financial assistance for Remedial Coaching to SC/ST students. It provides financial assistance to the existing coaching centres to prepare SC/ST candidates for the national eligibility test (NET) conducted by UGC/CSIR. The commission provides financial assistance for extension activities. Under the scheme, all groups of the society are covered including SCs/STs.

In order to contribute towards social equity and socio-economic mobility of the under privileged sections of the society, UGC has introduced remedial coaching scheme at UG/PG level. /The main objectives of the scheme are:
1. To improve the academic skills and linguistic proficiency of the students in various subjects.
2. To rasie the level of comprehension of basic subjects so as to provide a strong foundation for further academic work.
3. To strengthen their knowledge, skills and attitudes in the subjects where quantitative and qualitative techniques and laboratory work are involved and,
4. To improve the overall performance of these students in the examination.

The commission has created a central pool database of eligible SC/ST candidates and recommends their candidates for teaching positions in order to fulfill the prescribe reservation quota in universities and colleges.

Periodic meetings of registrars of central universities are organized to review the implementation of reservation policy in the central universities. A special monitoring committee, reviews the functioning of existing cells.

Community Polytechnics
The scheme of community polytechnics undertakes rural/community development activities through application of science and technology in its proximity. It provides platforms for transfer of appropriate technologies to rural masses/local communities. Preference is given in training to rural youths, SCs, STs, women, school dropouts and other disadvantaged groups and helps them to obtain need based gainful employment.

The scheme of community polytechnics has been in operation in selected diploma level institutions since 1978-79. It applies science and technology through skill oriented non-formal training, technology transfer and technical support services.

Engineering Colleges
The higher educational institutions administered by the central government including IITs, IIMs, National Institute of technology, etc., provide reservation to the extent of 15 percent and 7.5 percent for SCs and STs students respectively.

Apart from reservation, there is also relaxation in the minimum qualifying marks for admission for SC/ST students. Seats are also reserved in hostels. However, in institutions run by the State governments, the reservation percentages varies as per the state governments policy.

Jharkhand government moves for tribal language

By Jyoti Sonia Dhan

Isn’t it interesting that, the promotion of tribal languages in the schools? We had heard about it in the colleges like St Xavier College and Gosnner College in Ranchi having language paper in the tribal languages.
The Jharkhand government has taken a good initiative to teach lessons in Ho language up till the middle school in Kolhan (chaibasa) areas especially in the village school. The course curriculum depicted lessons on the festivals and the culture. It also included about the tribal freedom fighter’s struggle history.
There were 18 days classes given to the teachers related to these initiatives. The books were distributed and classes were on.
Thanks to the education department for recognizing the language. Hope the other tribal languages were to also to be taught in the schools. Besides, Hindi and English as the medium of communication, the regional languages were also plays its role in the society so why not the tribal languages in the tribal area. Its part of ones identity so do as in the regional state areas.

Source: Field study by the writer

The Tribal Youth: Their thoughts and aspirations

Are the tribal youth a homogenous group? Do they have different social values? Are they optimistic about the country's future?

Well, the Indian tribal youth are not a homogenous category. The usual social factors — the urban/rural divide, class, gender, caste and community — play a role in shaping the attitudinal profile of the youth. Unlike advanced industrial societies, where age is a significant social factor and there are sharp differences of opinion across generations, there is a strong continuity of belief in India. While this guards against disruption of social and family life, it means that there are limits to perceiving the tribal youth as harbingers of change.

The image of the tribal youth is that of trendy, gadget-wielding, metropolitan boys and girls. But still I think only one out of six tribal youth has a personal mobile phone or a two-wheeler — possibly, the two most coveted consumer goods. Only two per cent have an internet connection at home.

Access to such goods and technologies is strongly determined by location and the economic condition of the tribal family. The urban upper class tribal youth are nearly 10 times more likely to possess these in comparison with those who fall within the lower half of the rural tribal population.

There is an information divide between rural and urban tribal youth. Only a little more than half of the tribal youngsters would say they read newspapers. The number of those who watch news on television is a little higher. However, youth are more exposed to the media than elders. They also access entertainment on television and in cinema halls in greater numbers. But even here there is a clear rural-urban divide, further accentuated by class divisions. I'm sure that only one-sixth of the tribal youth have read any book other than those prescribed in their syllabi. The tribal youth are still far from entering the `information age'. This is reflected in their level of awareness. Many of them would say that they have never heard about The Emergency. But try asking them about Valentine's Day, they will answer even before the question completes.

Class conditions the aspirations. If it is asked to cite the monthly income that would be sufficient to meet the needs of themselves and the family, most of the rural lower class tribal youth will be satisfied with Rs. 5000 per month. But the urban well-to-do ones would prefer an amount more than Rs. 10000.

But class distinctions have no bearing on mobility aspirations. A majority of those in villages would like to leave and settle in towns. The difference between upper and lower classes on this issue is insignificant. Most of the rural tribal youth are prepared to leave their villages in search of a job. Interestingly, the urban poor have a greater attachment to their locality than the rural poor. Better off urbanites see more opportunities for mobility and are more open to moving, even to a foreign country. The upper class is enthused by this prospect.A willingness to work abroad does not mean a willingness to give up Indian identity. Interestingly, the rural and urban poor reject giving up citizenship more strongly. The urban well-to-do is more prepared to do so.

There are very few signs of change when it comes to social and family values. I think three-fourths of the tribal youth believe in God, and most worship regularly. They also endorse the view that marriage should take place within one's own caste-community. The Indian tribal youth also favour staying with parents after marriage, and believe that it is their responsibility to look after parents.

In politics too, the tribal youth are not very adventurous. Their rate of participation in political activities, and their level of interest and support for democracy are not very different from the rest of the population.

But it's quite true that the younger tribal generation is very optimistic about its future and that of the country. The optimism is more pronounced on economic questions as they expect poverty to be reduced and their economic condition and that of the country to get better. They think India will remain united, secular, and emerge as a superpower. These expectations do not square with their anxieties, as most of the tribal youth are anxious about employment and career. Prospects of marriage are much lower on their anxiety list.

Jharkhand to provide pilot training to 30 tribal youth

Ranchi, April 13 : The Jharkhand government has decided to provide pilot training to 30 more tribal students after an earlier group of 24 students landed jobs with leading airlines.The pilot training is being sponsored by the state welfare department.

"The 24 tribal boys, mostly from poor families, were provided pilot training. Most of them are employed with Indian Airlines, Air India, Air Deccan and Jet Airways," said U.K. Sangama, secretary of the social welfare department.

He said: "The state government spent Rs.1.1 million on training the students. Considering the success story of the 24 tribal boys, we have decided to sponsor pilot training for 30 more tribal boys."

The students are selected through a written examination and later they are sent to various training centres. The entrance examination for the second batch of students will be conducted by July.

The training for the first batch was completed in 2006. The process to select the students started in 2003. "We have put a condition that the tribal students after getting jobs in airlines will sponsor the education of two tribal boys of their village till the graduation level," said Sangama.

Besides pilot training, the state social welfare department is sponsoring other vocational training to tribal boys and girls. More than 200 tribal girls have been provided training as nurses.

Source: The Bihar Times

"Politics needs Tribal Youth"- Rahul Gandhi

On the second leg of his Discover India yatra in Karnataka, AICC general secretary Rahul Gandhi gave a clarion call to dalit and tribal youth to join politics.

During separate interactions with young dalits and tribals, organised in the precincts of the Vivekananda Tribal Centre in B.R. Hills, Mr. Gandhi pitched for fresh blood in politics to get rid of stagnancy. His visit to the tribal area, on the first day of his five-day tour of poll-bound Karnataka, turned out to be a big hit with hundreds of people, young and old, lining up on the route to cheer him. During the interaction, a dalit youth, Basavaraj, wanted to know whether dalit leaders would get more importance in politics. "I want SC/ST youth to join politics. If they have real talent, I will certainly push them forward in politics," Mr. Gandhi said.

The Tribal Spirit

There is discipline in a Tribal
you can see it when he walks,
There is honour in a Tribal
you hear it when he talks.
There is courage in a Tribal
you can see it in his eyes,
There is loyalty in a Tribal
that he will never compromise.
There is something in a Tribal
that makes him stand apart,
There is strength in a Tribal
that beats from his heart.
If you are a Tribal, let me say this to you-
"Thank the Lord for the Tribal Blood in you"

"It's difficult for me to forget my stripping", says adivasi girl

Laxmi Oraon, the adivasi girl whose stripping by a mob in Guwahati had created a nationwide furore, said she cannot forget her humiliation and that the tribal masses will continue to be deprived of their rights and justice unless they launch agitations unitedly.

"It is very difficult for me to forget what had happened to me on November 24 at Beltola (where she was stripped and paraded naked by locals during an adivasi rally) in Guwahati," she said and alleged that adivasis across the country continue to be neglected as the government is not interested in taking up their cause.

The 16-year-old, who was addressing her first public meeting at Ottar in West Singhbhum district on Tuesday, said in the absence of an united agitation by the tribals, she apprehended a November 24-like situation in Jharkhand.

Elaborating on the absence of unity among the tribals, the 16-year-old said several adivasi leaders from Jharkhand had visited her after the Beltola incident but nobody assured her that the tribal cause, including enlisting of over 80 lakh adivasis living in Assam in schedule tribe category, would be taken up by them.

Laxmi said she would tour West Bengal, Orissa, Chattisgarh and Jharkhand to create awareness among the adivasis.

The meeting was organised by Jharkhand Disom Party.

Source: The Indian Express

The Kondhas

The Kondha are indigenous tribal groups of India. Unlike other tribal groups of India, the Dongria Kondh are accomplished horticulturists, farming on the mountain ranges of Niyamgiri. Their highest concentration is found in the blocks of Rayagada, Kashipur, Kalyansinghpur, Bissamcuttack and Muniguda.

The Kondhas, once infamous for their human sacrifice during British colonialism in India, are believed to be from the Proto-Australoid racial stock. They have a distinct language called Kui which has no written script. They are plain land dwellers exhibiting greater adaptability to the forest environment. However, due to development interventions in education, medical facilities, irrigation, plantation and so on and so forth, they have started adapting to the great tradition or modern civilization standards in many ways. Their traditional life style, customary traits of economy political organization, norms, values and world view have been drastically changed over a long period of time.

One sub group of kondhas is the Dongria Kondhas. They inhabit the plateaus of Niyamgiri hill ranges which cover parts of Rayagada and Koraput and Kalahandi districts. Their major concentration is found in the blocks of Kalyansinghpur, Bissamcuttack and Muniguda. They are called Dongria or dweller of "donger"(hill in Oriya) and love to settle in higher altitudes due to their economic demands. The Niyamgiri Hills where the Dongria Kondh dwell are covered by superb natural forests and home to many rare species like the Golden Gecko and the Giant Squirrel. The Dongria Kondh call themselves Jharnia meaning those who live by the Jharana (streams). Hundreds of perennial streams flow from Niyamgiri hill, and there are hundreds of Dongria villages by the streams. The Dongria are the protectors of these streams, hills and jungles and are revered by people in the nearby plains.

They have a subsistence economy based on foraging, hunting & gathering but they now primarily depend on a subsistence agriculture i.e. shifting cultivation or slash and burn cultivation or Podu. The Dongria Kondh are excellent fruit farmers. The most striking feature of the Dongria kondhas is that they have adapted to horticulture and grow pineapple, oranges, turmeric, ginger and papaya in plenty. Forest fruit trees like mongo and jackfruit are also found in huge numbers, which fulfill the major dietary chunk of the Dongrias. Besides, the Dongrias practice shifting cultivation or "Podu Chasa" as it is locally called, as part of an economic need retaining the most primitive features of underdevelopment and cultural evolution.

The Dongria family is often nuclear, although extended families are found. Female family members are considered assets because of their contribution inside and outside the household and women are on equal footing with the male members in constructing a house to cultivation. Women do all the work for household ranging from fetching water from the distant streams, cooking, serving food to each member of the household to cultivating, harvesting and marketing of produce in the market. Due to this, the bride price is paid to her parents when she gets married which is a striking feature of the Dongrias. However, the family is patrilineal and patrilocal.

The Dongrias commonly practice polygamy. By custom, marriage must cross clan boundaries (a form of incest taboo). The clan or "Puja" is exogamous, which means marriages are made outside the clan (yet still within the greater Dongoria population). The form of acquiring mate is often by capture or force or elopement. However, marriage by negotiation is also practiced. The Dongrias have a dormitory for adolescent girls and boys which forms a part of their enculturation and education process. The girls sleep at night in the dormitory (Daa Sala) and learn social taboos, myths, legends, stories, riddles, proverbs amidst singing and dancing the whole night, thus learning everything that is expected from a potential wife and mother.

The Dongrias are great admirer of aesthetic romanticism. Their personal adornment is unique with each male and female member using hair clips, ear rings neck rings, hand rings made up of brass, iron and Hyndalium prepared by themselves as well as purchased from local markets. Body tattooing is practiced by both sexes.

The Dongria have a religion very close to animism. The gods and goddesses are always attributed to various natural phenomena, objects, trees, animals, etc. They have a god or deity for everything and anything. The Dongrias give highest importance to the Earth god (Dharani penu), and NIyam penu (Niyamgiri Hill) who is believed to be the creator of Dongrias. For instance, in a house, there is a deity for back and front street, kitchen, living room, implements and so on and so forth. In the Dongria society, breach of any religious conduct by any member of the society invites the wrath of spirits in the form of lack of rain fall, soaking of streams, destruction of forest produce, and other natural calamities. Hence, the customary law, norms, taboos, and values are greatly adhered and enforced with high to heavy punishments, depending up on the seriousness of the crimes committed.

For social control in the village and at Muttha level (regional), there are hereditary religious leaders like Jani (religious head), Mondal (secular head), Bejuni (sorcerer), Barik (messenger) to co-ordinate, decide by holding a meeting where the punishment is awarded along with appeasement procedure is followed with sacrifices of buffaloes and cocks. The punishment may be in cash or kind and may lead to ostracisation from the community if not obeyed.

Vedanta Resources, an aluminium company, is threatening the future of this tribe as their home the Niyamgiri Hill is rich in bauxite. The bauxite is also the reason there are so many perennial streams.

On the basis of their pre agricultural economy and very low literacy level, two Dongria Development Agencies (DKDAs) are in operation in these two blocks for the integral development of those communities. But these agencies have a top-down attitude towards the Dongria and therefore not much has been achieved. Corruption and casteism also mars these agencies.

The Todas

The Toda people are a small pastoral community who live on the isolated Nilgiri plateau of Southern India. Prior to the late eighteenth century, the Toda coexisted locally with other communities, including the Badaga, Kota, and Kurumba, in a loose caste-like community organization in which the Toda were the top ranking.The Toda population has hovered in the range 700 to 900 during the last century.Although an insignificant fraction of the large population of India, the Toda have attracted (since the late eighteenth century), "a most disproportionate amount of attention because of their ethnological aberrancy"and "their unlikeness to their neighbours in appearance, manners, and customs." The study of their culture by anthropologists and linguists would prove important in the creation of the fields of Social Anthropology and Ethnomusicology.

The Toda traditionally live in settlements consisting of three to seven small thatched houses, constructed in the shape of half-barrels and spread across the slopes of the pasture. They traditionally trade dairy products with their Nilgiri neighbour peoples. Toda religion centres on the buffalo; consequently, rituals are performed for all dairy activities as well as for the ordination of dairymen-priests. The religious and funerary rites provide the social context in which complex poetic songs about the cult of the buffalo are composed and chanted. Fraternal polyandry in traditional Toda society was fairly common; however, this has now largely been abandoned. During the last quarter of the twentieth century, some Toda pasture land was lost due to agriculture by outsiders or afforestation by the State Government of Tamil Nadu. This has threatened to undermine Toda culture by greatly diminishing the buffalo herds; however during the last decade both Toda society and culture have also become the focus of an international effort at culturally sensitive environmental restoration. The Toda lands are now a part of The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO-designated International Biosphere Reserve and is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site.

The Santhals

The Santhals (also spelled as Santhal; formerly also Sonthal) are the largest tribal community in India, found mainly in the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, and Orissa. There is also a significant Santhal minority in neighboring Bangladesh.

The Santhali language is part of the Austro-Asiatic family, distantly related to Vietnamese and Khmer. A few of the Indian anthropologists also believe that humans first came to India about 65000-55000 years ago[citations needed]. The earliest of them were Proto-Australoids followed by the Proto-Dravidians. The Proto-Australoids can be identified with some facial characteristics such as low forehead, thick lips, wide jaw and wavy hair. Historians believe that they were the ancestors of the tribal community residing in the eastern part of India (excluding hilly portions). So the Santhals, Kols and Mundas may be the descendants of them.

But in those times their primary way of subsistence were hunting and food gathering. The agrarian way of living was brought by the Aryans who came about in the 1500 B.C. How the Mohenjo- Daro civilization annihilated is a big question whether there was an Aryan invasion or a major environmental change that wiped them out is still under research and every day new theories are coming out.

Coming back to the history of tribals, the Proto Australoids their earliest ancestors started living in the forest in the eastern part of India .

The Santhali script, or Ol Chiki, is alphabetic, and does not share any of the syllabic properties of the other Indic scripts such as Devanagari. It uses 30 letters and five basic diacritics. It has 6 basic vowels and three additional vowels, generated using the Gahla Tudag.

The Santhal script is a relatively recent innovation. Santhali did not have a written language until the twentieth century and used Latin/Roman, Devnagri and Bangla writing systems.As none of the existing scripts were sufficient enough to correctly express the Santhali language phonetically,a need for the separate script was felt by some visionary Santhals,which resulted in the invention of new script called Ol Chiki by Pandit Raghunath Murmu in 1925. For his noble deed and contribution of the script Ol Chiki for the Santhal society,he is revered among Santhals. He wrote over 150 books covering a wide spectrum of subjects such as grammar, novels, drama, poetry, and short stories in Santhali using Ol Chiki as part of his extensive programme for uplifting the Santhal community. Darege Dhan, Sidhu-Kanhu, Bidu Chandan and Kherwal Bir are among the most acclaimed of his works. Pandit Raghunath Murmu is popularly known as Guru Gomke among the Santhals, a title conferred on him by the Mayurbhanj Adibasi Mahasabh.
Beside Pandit Raghunath Murmu, very few Indian linguists worked seriously on the linguistic aspects of the language. One of them was Dr. Byomkes Chakrabarti (1923-1981). He was a Bengali research worker on ethnic languages. He was a renowned educationist and a poet too. His major contribution was in finding out some basic relationship between Santhali language and Bengali language. He showed how the Bengali language has got some unique characteristics, which are absent in other Indian languages, under the influence of Santhali language(in 'A Comparative Study of Santhali and Bengali'). His contribution was fundamental in nature in the origin and development of the Bengali and Santhali language and provided scopes of research in newer fields in liguistics.

The Santhali culture has attracted many scholars and anthropologists for decades. The first attempt to study the Santhali culture was done by the Christian missionaries. The most famous of them was the Norwegian-born Reverend Paul Olaf Bodding. Unlike many other tribal groups of the Indian subcontinent, the Santhals are known for preserving their native language despite waves of migrations and invasions from Mughals, Europeans, and others.

Santhali culture is depicted in the paintings and artworks in the walls of their houses. Local mythology includes the stories of the Santhal ancestors Pilchu Haram and Pilchu Bhudi.
The Santhal people love music and dance. Like other Indian people groups, their culture has been influenced by mainstream Indian culture and by Western culture, but traditional music and dance still remain. Santhal music differs from Hindustani classical music in significant ways. Onkar Prasad has done the most recent work on the music of the Santhal but others preceded his work. The Santhal traditionally accompany many of their dances with two drums: the Tamak' and the Tundak'. The flute (tiriao) was considered the most important Santhal traditional instrument and still evokes feelings of nostalgia for many Santhal. Santhal dance and music traditionally revolved around Santhal religious celebrations. This is still true to a degree although traditional religious beliefs have been significantly altered by Hindu belief and Christian mission work. However, Santhal music and dance both retain connections to traditional celebrations. The names of many Santhal tunes are derived from the traditional ritual with which they were once associated. Sohrae tunes, for example, were those sung at the Sohrae festival.

The Santhal community is devoid of any caste system and there is no distinction made on the basis of birth. They believe in supernatural beings and ancestral spirits. Santhali rituals are mainly comprised of sacrificial offerings and invocations to the spirits, or bongas. It is believed by some scholars that Bonga means the same as Bhaga (or Bhagavan).[4] The Santhal system of governance, known as Manjhi–Paragana, may be compared to what is often called Local Self Governance. This body is responsible for making decisions to ameliorate the village's socioeconomic condition.

The Oraons

The Oraon or Kurukh tribe (Kurukh: O?aon and Ku?u??), also spelled Uraon, Oran, or Oram, inhabits various states across central and eastern India as well as Bangladesh. Traditionally, Oraons depended on the forest for their ritual and economic livelihood, but in recent times they have become mainly settled agriculturalists. Small numbers of Oraons have immigrated to the northeastern part of India, where they are mainly employed in tea estates. A numbers of educated Oraons have settled down in metros like Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai,Chennai and many other cities of India including Patna, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Hyderabad, Allahabad, and Lucknow. Some have even settled abroad in the US and Europe.

The Kurukh or Oraons are the people best known in many parts of India as 'Dhangar'. According to traditions the tribe has gradually migrated from Maharashtra and Gujrat and the word Kurukh is derived from Konkan which is considered the cradle of this race. The terms Dhangar and Dhangarin means the youth of the two sexes both in high land and lowland villages. Oraon appears to have been assigned to them as a nickname, possibly with reference to their many migrations and proneness to roam. The Oraons all agree in this, that they were for many generations settled on the Rohatas and adjoining hills and in the Patna District, and that they were driven from that place by Muhammadans.

There is no concrete evidence that Oraon have migrated from Konkan or Maharashtra to Chotanagpur region of present Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Orissa.[citation needed] However, few believe, they might have migrated from Konkan Region of Maharashtra. As per folk stories, songs and unwritten account of history of Oraon, they were for many generations settled down on Rohtasgarh. It is still not clear whether present Rohtas district; near Patna was the place as Oraon referred to in their folk stories. It is still not clear whether the Mohammedans or Muslim invaders drove them out from the Rohtasgarh. Though folk stories indicate that the invaders were Turk. As per the stories, Turk wanted to capture the Rohtasgarh, but, they were not dare to fight with warriors Kurukh (Oraon). Oraon were superior fighters, therefore, Turk employed one woman to know weakness of Kurukh, the woman informed the Turk that on the Day of Karma and Sarhul festival every kurukh drink Hadia and would not be able to fight with Turk. When Turk invaded at the Rohtasgarh or The Fort of Rohtas, it was the day of festival and all the male members of community had taken Hadia or rice bear and not were able to fight with the enemies, therefore the womenfolk, wearing male dress, fought the enemies and drove them out from their fort. The Turk invaded twelve times on the Rohtasgarh on the day of Karma or Sarhul festival and each time they were defeated by the Kurukh womenfolk. To commemorate the victory over Turk by the Kurukh woman, Oraon community still celebrates Jani Shikar, after every twelve year. However, the Turks were lucky to capture the fort at their thirteenth invades and Kurukh were unseated from the Rohtasgarh. Finally, Oraon were settled down in the Chotanagpur region of present Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Orissa states.

The Oraon language, Kurukh, belongs to the Dravidian family, and is most closely related to Brahui and Malto (Paharia). Kurukh language is being taught in Ranchi University in Jharkhand. A Kurukh Literary Society have been formed after the first Kurukh Conference held in Ranchi in October, 2006. Many Kurukh language magazines are being published from various parts of India.

The Oraon people have a rich and vast range of folk songs, dances and tales, as well as traditional musical instruments. Both men and women participate in dance, which are performed at social events and festivals. Mandar, Nagara and kartal are the main musical instruments.

A sizable numbers of Oraon have immigrated to the northeastern part of India, where they are mainly employed in tea estates of West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura. A sizable numbers of Oraon have settled down in North Bihar and in Nepal. Many have settled down in the lower part of Bhutan (Samchi district).

Kartik Oraon, who was a highly educated Oraon, an Indian Congress leader and former state communication minister of India, Albert Ekka, the Paramveer Chakra awardees, and the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Ranchi, Cardinal Telesphore Placidus Toppo and Dilip Tirkey, former Captain of the Indian Hockey Team are all Oraons.

The Oraon people have a rich and vast range of folk songs, dances and tales, as well as traditional musical instruments. Both men and women participate in dance, which are performed at social events and festivals. The majority of Oraon write their gotra along with their name. However, those who follow Tana Bhagat principle or Sarna Dharma write the Bhagat in place of their gotra. Many prefer to write Oraon as a second name in place of a gotra.

About 75 percent of population are Sarna (following Sarna Dharma, in which Dharmesh is the supreme almighty and rest are largely Christians. Sarna perform religious rituals under the shade of a sacred grove. Oraon Christians no longer perform most of the traditional rituals; however, Karma, a festival performed during rainy season, is still performed in church in a modified form. Sarna worship The Sun as Biri and the Moon as Chando. Chando Biri are the words which been used in the Sarna Puja. They called the earth as Dharti Aayo. Oraon worship the nature and believe that the great consciousness or The God is nature itself. The Oraon believe in equality and respect individual rights to worship anything or everything or nothing as per individual own perceptions. They also call the spirits of ancestors at their home for living with them, as they believe that they possess kind heart and divine power and do well for their family. They do not believe in hording wealth and believe in simple life to live on. The Pahans and Pujaris who perform Puja and other rituals in the community or village get a piece of land for livelihoods until they shoulder the responsibilities. Once they shed the responsibilities, they forfeit the right to cultivate on the Pahnai Khet. The Oraon like the freedom and liberty in social activities. They never consider any community superior to them or inferior to them. They believe in equality and believe all the community, race or castes or religion are equal and no community or group or caste or religion is superior or inferior to them.

The Nagas

The Naga people of about two and half million are found in Nagaland, parts of Manipur, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh in North-East India, and parts of Myanmar (Burma) such as Sagaing Division. Of mixed Yunnanese and Burmese origin, they speak tribal dialects belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family. The different tribes of nagas who are not inhabited in Nagaland are known as Kacha Nagas (Duplicate Nagas).

Culture:
Tattoing and dormitories plays a major role in their traditional culture, although this practice is now in sharp decline. Headhunting, which was once widely practiced, has been banned since 1991.

List of Naga tribes:
They are divided into 30 tribes, many of whom are found outside Nagaland or Kacha Naga (Duplicate Naga).

Angami
Ao
Chakesang
Chang
Katcha
Khiamnungan
Konyak
Liangmei
Lotha
Phom
Pochuri
Mao
Maram
Nocte
Poumai
Rengma
Rongmei
Sangtam
Sumi
Tangkhul
Tangsa
Tutsa
Wancho
Yimchunger
Zemei
Zeliangrong

The Mundas

The Munda are a tribal (Adivasi) people of the Jharkhand region, which is spread over on five states of India (Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Chhatisgarh and Orissa), and in parts of Bangladesh. Their language is Mundari, which belongs to the Munda subgroup of the Austro-Asiatic language family; the Munda language group is in fact named after the Munda people. There are some two million Munda people (twenty lakhs).

As Austro-Asiatic speakers, the Munda people are the indigenous peoples of the Indian subcontinent.

About 25 percent of the population are Christians. Mundas have their own religion, called Sarna, in which they worship nature. They believe in a supreme being called Sing Bonga, which literally means "Sun God". 'Sarna' is supposedly not part of Hinduism as emphasized by some. Common surnames (Gotras) are: Topno, Barla, Aind, Hemrom, Guria, Herenge, Surin, Horo, Sanga, Samad, Soy, Kongari, Bage, Purty, Demta, Tiru, Munda, Kerketta Etc. Jesuit Father John-Baptist Hoffmann (1857-1928) spent his life studying the language, customs, religion and life of the Mundas, a people with whom he had fallen in love. He published the first Munda grammar in 1903. Later (with the help of Menas Orea, a Munda wise man and scholar to whom he paid a rich tribute) Hoffmann brought out a most extraordinary Encyclopaedia mundarica (15 volumes) gathering all that was then known on the Munda people. The first edition was published in 1937, after his death. A third edition came out of the press in 1976.

Notable Mundas
Birsa Munda- The leader of a late 19th century political independence movement during British colonial rule in India
Jaipal Singh- He formed Adivasi Mahasabha in 1938, himself as its president. After independence the name of the party was changed to Jharkhand Party to accommodate non-tribal to achieve long term goals. He was the first to demand a separate Jharkhand state for tribals. He captained the Indian field hockey team to clinch gold in the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. He is well known for his sportsmanship and political skills.

The Mizos

The Mizos are a scheduled tribe in northeastern India, primarily in the state of Mizoram, where they are a majority and minority community Chakma who constitute more than 10% percent of the state population.

The present state of Mizoram (mi = human/people, zo = hill, ram = land; the land of hill people) was called the Lushai Hills and was a district of Assam, before it became a Union Territory and afterwards a full-fledged state. The Lushai people were the first clan to have an external exposure and hence the people are initially known as the Lushai people. The demand for a distinct political territory for the people of Lushai Hills resulted in the creation of a separate Union Territory and afterwards the State of Mizoram. In this struggle, one of the powerful factors was the movement to call themselves Mizo, rather than by distinct tribal names such as the Lushai, the Ralte, the Hmar, the Khiangte, the Paite, the Mara people, and the Pawi. Their languages (of which the largest is Dulien/Duhlian) belong to the Tibeto-Burman, and are closely related to those of the Chin in the adjacent Chin State of Myanmar, as well as those of the Nagas, Kukis and others.

The term Mizo is generic and it is a collective designation that includes the peoples of the region who share some degree of cultural and linguistic heritage; however the term embraces many distinct populations, societies and ethnic groups or tribes who each have their own particular traditions, cultures and historical identity, which are similar in many ways but also differ. Some tribes outside the state of Mizoram that obviously could be included under the term Mizo instead call themself Zomi.

The Tripuris

The Tripuri (Tipra or Tipperah) people are the original inhabitants of the Kingdom of Tripura in Bangladesh and North-East India. The Tripuri people through the Royal family of the Debbarmas ruled the Kingdom of Tripura for more than 2000 years till the kingdom joined the Indian Union in 1949.

The Tripuris live on the slopes of hills in a group of five to fifty families. Their houses in these areas are built of bamboo or ua as it is called in Kokborok and raised five to six feet height to save themselves from the dangers of the wild animals. Nowadays a considerable section of this community are living in the plains and erecting houses like the plains people, adopting their methods of cultivation, and following them in other aspects of life, such as dress, manners, and cosmetics. Tripuri women wear a scarp, called rignai, which reaches down just below the knee. They weave in their loin-loom a small piece of cloth, which they call risa, and they use this small piece of cloth as their breast garment.

Tripuri children in traditional attire grouping up for song presentation. A rigwnai pattern.The Tripuri people are considered part of the Tibeto-Burmese ethnic group. Originally they migrated from near the upper courses of the Yangtze kiang and the Hwang Ho rivers in Western China. They had left China long before the Sui dynasty came to power. At the time of migration they were animists. So it may be reasonably assumed that they migrated before 65 AD, the year Buddhism was introduced in China. The common reference to these people as "Kiratas" and "Cinas" in the early Sanskrit texts of India unmistakably indicates that they came down to the Assam valley long before the dawn of Christian era.

Tripuris entered their present country through its north-eastern corner , settled there and gradually expanded their settlement and suzerainty over the whole of Tripura. They were able to expand their influence as far south as Chittagong, as far west as Comilla and Noakhali (known during the British period as 'plains Tipperah') and as far north as Sylhet (all in present Bangladesh). Hardly their forefathers could imagine that their descendants were destined to build a strong monarchy and resist the advance of the Mughals. The ruling dynasty passed through several vicissitudes of history and ruled Tripura for several centuries till up to 14 October 1949, the day Tripura was annexed by India.

The Tripuri people mainly speak various dialects of Kokborok, the standard dialect of the Debbarma tribe spoken around Agartala and the second official language of Tripura. There are estimated to be 1,000,000 speakers of the various dialects of Kokborok in Tripura, others being in Mizoram & Assam in India and Sylhet and Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh.

A rigwnai pattern.The indigenous Tripuri people comprises various hill tribal communities viz., Tipra, Reang, Jamatia, Kaipeng, Noatia, Koloi, Halam, etc. who migrated to this land in successive waves in the ancient past. They grew in isolation and were sometimes subjugated by one another. Each community had its own elementary social and administrative organization starting from the village level and up to the chieftainship of the whole tribe. The tribes enjoy their traditional freedom based on the concept of self-determination. The relation between the king and the subject tribes was as Maharaja (king) of Tripura-Missip or liaison officer Roy of Headman of the tribe - Sardar of chief of the village-the individual.

The Tripuri people have a rich historical, social and cultural heritage which is totally distinct from that of the mainland Indians, their distinctive culture as reflected in their dance, music, festivals, management of community affairs, dress and food habit has a strong base. Kokborok, the linguafranca of the twelve largest linguistic groups of the indigenous Tripuris and other dialects spoken in Trpura are of the Tibeto-Burman group as distinct from those spoken in India. There is no influence whatsoever of from those spoken by other peoples in the North-eastern region. The great music composer father-son duo of S.D.Burman & R.D.Burman belong to the Tripura royal family.

The main Tripuri tribes are:
Debbarma or Tipra , from which the royal family Debbarman ruled the kingdom.
Reang or Bru
Jamatia
Koloi
Noatia
Murasing
Halam
Uchoi

Like many parts of the world the Tripuri has traditional sports. It is common in almost all the clans of Tripuri. They are called thwngmung in Tripuri. Now a days these traditional sports are being abandoned gradually as Tripuris are attracted to modern games and sports. But some of the sports still played and preferred in rural Tripura.

The Tripuri people have been reduced to a minority in Tripura due to the large scale migration of the Bengali people since Tripura kingdom joined India from 1949. From a majority of 80% population in 1901 census they constituted just 30% according to the 2001 census of India.

These has resulted in wide-spread insurgency and militancy in the state with groups such as TNV (Tripura National Volunteers), NLFT (National Liberation Front of Tripura) and ATTF (All Tripura Tiger Force), whose main motive is to secede from India and drive away the Bengali people and regain the independence the kingdom.

The Kurichiyas

The Kurichiyas live in the forested areas of Kerala state, southern India, where they were the earliest known inhabitants. The Kurichiya tribals live in the forested areas of Wayanad district, Kerala state of India. They apply "Kuri", a sandalwood paste on their foreheads and chests, and it is possible the name Kurichiya is derived from this custom. The Kurichiyas are marginal farmers and most of them have small plots where they grow pepper and other crops. They are expert archers and hunt for game meat. When the British came into their territory, the Kurichiyas rose against them in revolt supporting the Pazhassi Raja in his guerilla warfare against the British at the end of 18th century.

Being isolated jungle dwellers, the Kurichiyas continue to practise age-old customs. On returning from a journey, they will bathe before entering the home and those who break dietary laws become outcasts. The Kurichiya society follows a matriarchal system. The village headman is elected during a ritual performed before their idols. When someone in the group goes into a trance and performs a frenzied dance, he assumes responsibility over the tribe by wearing an auspicious silver-handled knife on his waist.

Their language is called Kurichiya, similar to Malayalam. It is said that their name comes from the word kuri, which is the sandalwood that they put on their foreheads and chests.
The Kurichiyas were the first migrants into the Wayanad hills and settled as the first farmers of the western region. When the Muslims and the British came into their area, the Kurichiya rose against them in revolt. Unfortunately, they were defeated by the strong arm of the British.
In India, there is a very complex hierarchy of castes, or social classes. This system is extremely important to the Indians and observed by all. However, the Kurichiyas consider themselves to be above even the highest caste of Hindu Brahman (priests and scholars).

On their small patches of land, the Kurichiyas raise peppers and several other cash crops. Although they are primarily farmers, they are also expert archers and eat meat in addition to the crops they grow. Some must work on land provided by the government, while others are forced to make their living by cutting and selling wood from the forest.

The Kurichiyas claim to be superior to all of the other Hindu castes. This is partially because there are no beggars among them; their society does not tolerate the destitution of any of its members. Because they live in large family groups, it has always been possible for a poor Kurichiya to find food and shelter.

A typical Kurichiya would surprise even a casual observer with the strength of his convictions. The Kurichiyas are so concerned with keeping themselves pure that they will burn their huts, if touched by outsiders. On returning from a journey, they will not enter their homes until they have purified themselves by bathing. They will neither eat food nor drink water that has been touched by non-Kurichiya. When visiting neighboring villages, they refrain from eating. Those who break dietary laws become outcasts. Some historians are saying that Kurichiyas are difeated Nair warriors of north Malabar because of their defeat and some other wrong things taboos to their cast ,they lost their cast and became" Vana vasis".

One of the most powerful members of the Kurichiya tribe is the Mooppar (sorcerer), who is also the village headman. He is elected during a ritual performed before their idols. When someone in the group goes into a trance and does a frenzied dance, the Kurichiyas believe that this is a sign that the gods have chosen this individual to be their leader. This person then assumes responsibility over the tribe by wearing the silver-handled knife (that was worn by his predecessor), on his waist.

One striking trait of the Kurichiyas is the fact that they were traditionally a matriarchal (female-dominated) society. They are the only Indian community(Including Nairs and some Hindu castes excluding Ezhavas and Namboothiris) outside the province of Assam that has continued to follow this type of system, even as recently as 1970. Their society survived because of their deep-rooted conservatism, as well as, their isolation in the Wayanad plateau.

The Kurichiyas share many traits with other tribes of their area. These include the traditional fore-lock of hair, their house patterns, ornaments, style of presenting offerings, observance of shamanism (a type of spiritism), and kinship terminology.

No group in India can equal the Kurichiya in devotion to their faith. The Kurichiyas are Hindus and their supreme deity is, Shiva, "god of the hunt." They worship a variety of gods and demons in addition to their own tribal gods. While their faith may be as deep as that of the Brahmans, their rituals are much simpler.

The Khasis

The Khasi are a tribe in Meghalaya, India and in parts of Bangladesh, who call themselves Hynniew trep (which means "the seven huts" in the Khasi language). Their language is also called Khasi, which was mostly oral until the arrival of the Welsh missionary Thomas Jones, who transcribed the Khasi language into the Roman Script. They comprise almost fifty percent of the population of Meghalaya, the remainder of whom are mostly Garo. Most Khasi are Presbyterian, Anglican, Roman Catholic, or followers of the original Khasi religion Ka Niam Tynrai, although there is a tiny Unitarian presence, as well. Some Khasi reside in the hilly areas of Sylhet, Bangladesh. The Khasi tribes are usually dependent upon jhoom cultivation in which the vegetation is left to grow totally under the care of nature. In Bangladesh, one of the main products produced by the Khasi using jhoom cultivation is betel leaf.

The Khasis mainly reside in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in the state of Meghalaya. The Khasis inhabit the Khasi Hills proper, and the Syntengs, or Pnars, the Jaintia Hills. The Lynngams inhabit the western portion of the Khasi Hills proper. The people known as Bhois live in the low hills to the north and north-east of the district.

The Khasis are descendants of Mon-Khmer speakers who migrated probably from Yunnan to Meghalaya, and thus they are of East Asian origin. Most Khasi have brown to light yellow skin, epicanthic folds, high nasal bridges and aquiline noses, but it is not uncommon for a group of Khasi to have looks ranging from those of typical East Asians to those of typical Central Asians or Persians.now you can see picture of a khasi man.

The traditional Khasi male dress is Jymphong or a longish sleeveless coat without collar, fastened by thongs in front. Now, the Khasis have adopted the western dress. On ceremonial occasions, they appear in ‘Jymphong’ and dhoti with an ornamental waist-band.

The Khasi traditional female dress is called a jainsem or a dhara, which are rather elaborate with several pieces of cloth, giving the body a cylindrical shape. On ceremonial occasions, they wear a crown of silver or gold on the head. A spike or peak is fixed to the back of the crown, corresponding to the feathers worn by the menfolk. The Jainsem consists of two pieces of material fastened at each shoulder. The Dhara consists of a single piece of material also fastened at each shoulder.

The Khasis have a matrilineal and Matriarchal society.Descent is traced through the mother, but the father plays an important role in the material, mental life of the family and social welfare. According to Khasi laws, a woman cannot be forced into marriage, she owns the children and properties.In Khasi tradition, the youngest daughter will also inherit the property. A woman may end a marriage at her will with no objection from her husband. The Khasi have an unusual dedication toward matrilineal customs, most notably similar to the Minangkabaus. Khasis are also fond of dancing and singing.

The Gonds

The Gondi (Gondi) are a people in central India. The Gondi, or Gond people are spread over the states of Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra(Vidarbha), Chhattisgarh, northern Andhra Pradesh, and western Orissa. With over four million people, they are the largest tribe in Central India.

The Gondi language is related to Telugu and other Dravidian languages. About half of Gonds speak Gondi languages, while the rest speak Indo-Aryan languages including Hindi.
The Gonds are traditionally agriculturalists; some practice shifting cultivation, while others raise cereals or herd cattle. Gond society is highly stratified and does not conform to the usual image of egalitarianism among tribals. The Gonds belong to a category of very large tribes (also including Santals and Bhils) that have traditionally dominated the regions in which they have lived. However, like other Adivasis, the Gonds have suffered from increasing landlessness since the 1960s.

Traditional Gond religion involves a distinct pantheon of gods and spirits, which many Gonds practice along with Hinduism.

Gondwana or "land of the Gonds", is a loosely-defined area of southeastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra, and parts of Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and northern Andhra Pradesh. The region was home to several Gond kingdoms from the 15th century to the mid-18th century, when the Marathas expanded into the region from the west. The region gave its name to Gondwanaland, the ancient southern supercontinent which comprised present-day Africa, Madagascar, South America, Australia, the Indian subcontinent and Antarctica.

The Gonds of Andhra Pradesh effectively lost their only advantage in trying to protect their lands when the Banjaras, a group of nomadic cattle herders that had been settling in Gond territory, were classified as a Scheduled Tribe in 1977. Their newly acquired tribal status made the Banjaras eligible to acquire Gond land 'legally' and to compete with Gonds for reserved political seats, places in education institutions, and other benefits. Because the Banjaras are not scheduled in neighboring Maharashtra, there has been an influx of Banjara emigrants from that state into Andhra Pradesh in search of better opportunities.

Commission after commission on the "language question" has called for instruction, at least at the primary level, in the students' native tongue. However, state governments have often demanded the introduction of regional language instruction in Gondi areas. Primary schooling among the Gonds of Andhra Pradesh, for example, began in the 1940s and 1950s. The government selected a group of Gonds who were semiliterate in Telugu and taught them the basics of written script. These individuals became teachers who taught in Gondi, and their efforts enjoyed a measure of success until the 1970s, when state policy demanded instruction in Telugu. The switch in the language of instruction both made the Gond teachers superfluous because they could not teach in Telugu and also presented the government with the problem of finding reasonably qualified teachers willing to teach in outlying tribal schools.

Gonds frequently are reluctant to send their children to school, needing them to work in the fields instead.

The Dhodias

The majority of the Dhodia tribes are located in the southern part of Gujarat, Surat and Valsad districts, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan of India. The Dhodia tribes speak the Dhodia language. It is a language which is a mixture of unique words, as well as some words influenced by gujarati as well as Marathi. Their language does not have a written script.

There are many beliefs about the origin of the term "dhodia". One is that they came from a place called Dhulia. The other belief is that the Rajputs from around the Dholka taluka, married local women in the tribal villages and later their descendents established themselves as Dhodia.

However, these all just folklore that are yet to be supported by scientific or historic data.
Most of the dhodia believe in traditional religious practices. However, they are influenced by Hinduism for their religious thought. Some internal groups follow Christianity under the influence of missionaries.

The majority of Dhodia believe in and are devoted to "Kanasari" or "Kanseri" (Goddess of food). They celebrate the "Kanseri" annually at harvest. The "Kaneseri" Goddess means the Goddess "Annapurna".

The Dhodia celebrate "Divaso". The Festivals "Holi" and "Diwali" are also celebrated with full of joy. Vagh baras is also celebrated in a unique fashion in some Dhodia villages where, men colour themselves in stripes representing the Vagh and others as plain white or other colours denoting cattle. The tiger chases the cattle. Finally at the end of the sport the village inhabitants eat food together at a common place and celebrate. Navratri is also celebrated by the Dhodia. They dance to the tune of tur for the garba.

The Bhils

Bhils are a tribal people of Central India. They speak Bhil languages, a group of Indic languages.
Bhils are a scheduled tribe in the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan in western and central India, as well as in Tripura in far-eastern India, on the border with Bangladesh. The Ghoomar dance is one well-known aspect of Bhil culture.

In feudal and colonial times, many Bhils were employed by the ruling Rajputs in various capacities, e.g. as Shikaris because of their knowledge of the terrain. Many had even become warriors in armies. They were in the Mewar army of Maharana Pratap Singh and like Chhatrapati Shivaji, were experts in guerilla warfare which the Mughals had so much trouble handling. Today, there is a Mewar Bhil Corps.'

In Hindu Mythology, popular Bhil figures are Shabari, who offered Rama and Laxmana half-eaten Ber (berries) fruit when they were searching for Sita Devi in the forest. Maharishi Matanga was another Hindu Bhil sage who became a Brahmana.

It is noteworthy that Lord Rama appears in a Bhil myth where there has been a flood that wiped out humanity and Rama suggests how it can be repopulated.

The Bodos

The Bodos (pronounced BO-ros) are an ethnic and linguistic community, early settlers of Assam in the North-East of India. According to the 1991 census, there were 1.2 million Bodos in Assam which makes for 5.3% of the total population in the state.Bodos belong to a larger group of ethnicity called the Bodo-Kachari. The Bodos are recognized as a plains tribe in the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. Udalguri and Kokrajhar town are considered the nerve center of the Bodos.

The Bodos represents one of the largest of the 18 ethnic sub-groups within the Bodo-Kacharis group, first classified in the 19th century.Bodos have settled in most areas of North-East India, and parts of Nepal. Among the 18 groups mentioned by Endle, the Mech in Western Assam, the Bodo in central Assam, the Dimasa and Hojai to the north of Cachar Hills, and the Sonowal and Thengal in the eastern part of the Brahmaputra river are closely related. The others have been either Hinduized (e.g. Koch, Sarania), or have developed separate identities (e.g. Garo).

The Bodos represents one of the largest ethnic and linguistic groups of the Brahmaputra valley. Typical Bodo last names (surname) are Bargayary, Basumatary, Bodosa, Boro, Brahma, Bwiswmuthiary, Dwimary, Goyary, Ishlary, Ishwary, Khaklary, Mushahary, Narzary,Narzihary,Narzinary, Owary, Sargwary, Sibigry and Wary. The 1971 census report indicated Bodos being the 8th largest scheduled-tribe (ST) group in India. Close to 1 million people speak Bodo language.

The Bodo language is derived from Tibeto-Burmese family of languages. Although, Roman script and Assamese script were used in the past. Recently, Bodos adopted the Devanagari script. According to some scholars, the Bodo language had a script of its own called Deodhai.

Very early on, Bodos may have introduced rice cultivation, tea plantation, pig and poultry farming, and silkworm rearing in the North East India. The traditional favourite drink of the Bodos is Zu Mai. Rice is a staple of the Bodos and is often accompanied by a non vegetarian dish such as fish or pork. Traditionally Bodos are non-vegetarians.

Weaving is another integral part of Bodo culture. Many families rear their own silkworms, the cocoons of which are then spun into silk. Bodo girls learn to weave from a young age, and no Bodo courtyard is complete without a loom. Most women weave their own Dokhnas (the traditional dress of the Bodo women) and shawls. The Bodos are also expert craftsmen in bamboo products.

The Andamanese

The Andamanese is a collective term to describe the peoples who are the aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, located in the Bay of Bengal. The term includes the Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge, Sentinelese and the extinct Jangil. Anthropologically they are usually classified as Negritos, represented also by the Semang of Malaysia and the Aeta of the Philippines. They are thought to have arrived from Africa and to have lived on the Andaman Islands for up to 60,000 years. With very little contact with external societies or each other for nearly all this period the tribes have mutually unintelligible languages. This comparatively long-lasting isolation and separation from external influences is unequalled, except perhaps by the aboriginal inhabitants of Tasmania.

However, this changed in the mid-1800s after the British established penal colonies. Increasing numbers of Indian and Karen settlers arrived, encroaching on former territories of the Andamanese. This proved disastrous for many of the tribes - with no resistance to common diseases, they quickly succumbed to epidemics of pneumonia, measles and influenza. At the time of first contact with the British there were an estimated 5,000 Great Andamanese; today only 41 remain.

Today only the Sentinelese, who live exclusively on North Sentinel Island, have been able to completely maintain their independent state, resisting attempts to contact them. The Jarawa have also managed to remain substantially apart from the later colonisers and settlers; other Andamanese groups have had more extensive contacts, resulting in drastic reductions in territory and numbers, with several peoples becoming extinct altogether.

Until the 19th century, their habit of killing all shipwrecked foreigners and the remoteness of their islands prevented modification of their culture or language. Cultivation was unknown to them, and they lived off hunting indigenous pigs, fishing, and gathering. Their only weapons were the bow, adzes and wooden harpoons. Besides the aboriginal people of Tasmania, the Andamanese were the only people who in the 19th century knew no method of making fire, carefully preserving embers in hollowed-out trees from fires caused by lightning strikes.

Objectives

Well friends, I created this blog specially for the members of 'The Tribal Blood' Community of Orkut. But now it's opened to everyone who is concerned about the tribals of India. The main objective of 'The Tribal Blood' blog is to provide news and articles about our Adivasi folks. It is committed to report all the major events and happenings that touch the lives of our people in a factual and informative way. Many of us have forgotten our history and culture. This blog will surely try its best to resuscitate them once again. In the journey of improving our tribal society, this is a small step to let the world know something more about us and acknowledge our rights. So if you are a tribal or interested in the development of Adivasis, you can come and share your heart with everyone. Long live our Tribal Blood.

Regards,

Manav Lakra